PIV-based Investigation of Hemodynamic Factors in Diseased Carotid Artery Bifurcations with Varying Plaque Geometries

Ischemic stroke is often a consequence of complications due to clot formation (i.e. thrombosis) at the site of an atherosclerotic plaque developed in the internal carotid artery. Hemodynamic factors, such as shear-stress forces and flow disturbances, can facilitate the key mechanisms of thrombosis. Atherosclerotic plaques can differ in the severity of stenosis (narrowing), in eccentricity (symmetry), as well as inclusion of ulceration (wall roughness). Therefore, in terms of clinical significance, it is important to investigate how the local hemodynamics of the carotid artery is mediated by the geometry of plaque. Knowledge of thrombosis-associated hemodynamics may provide a basis to introduce advanced clinical diagnostic indices that reflect the increased probability of thrombosis and thus assist with better estimation of stroke risk, which is otherwise primarily assessed based on the degree of narrowing of the lumen. A stereoscopic particle image velocimetry (stereo-PIV) system was configured to obtain instantaneous full-field velocity measurements in life-sized carotid artery models. Extraction of the central-plane and volumetric features of the flow revealed the complexity of the stenotic carotid flow, which increased with increasing stenosis severity and changed with the symmetry of the plaque. Evaluation of the energy content of two models of the stenosed carotid bifurcation provided insight on the expected level of flow instabilities with potential clinical implications. Studies in a comprehensive family of eight models ranging from disease-free to severely stenosed (30%, 50%, 70% diameter reduction) and with two types of plaque symmetry (concentric or eccentric), as well as a single ulcerated stenosed model, clearly demonstrated the significance of plaque geometry in marked alteration of the levels and patterns of downstream flow disturbances and shear stress. Plaque eccentricity and ulceration resulted in enhanced flow disturbances. In addition, shear-stress patterns in those models with eccentric stenosis were suggestive of increased thrombosis potential at the post-stenotic recirculation zone compared to their concentric counterpart plaques

Confocal and two-photon microscopy : image enhancement /

Confocal and two-photon microcopy have become essential tools in biological research and today many investigations are not possible without their help. The valuable advantage that these two techniques offer is the ability of optical sectioning. Optical sectioning makes it possible to obtain 3D visuahzation of the structiu-es, and hence, valuable information of the structural relationships, the geometrical, and the morphological aspects of the specimen. The achievable lateral and axial resolutions by confocal and two-photon microscopy, similar to other optical imaging systems, are both defined by the diffraction theorem. Any aberration and imperfection present during the imaging results in broadening of the calculated theoretical resolution, blurring, geometrical distortions in the acquired images that interfere with the analysis of the structures, and lower the collected fluorescence from the specimen. The aberrations may have different causes and they can be classified by their sources such as specimen-induced aberrations, optics-induced aberrations, illumination aberrations, and misalignment aberrations. This thesis presents an investigation and study of image enhancement. The goal of this thesis was approached in two different directions. Initially, we investigated the sources of the imperfections. We propose methods to eliminate or minimize aberrations introduced during the image acquisition by optimizing the acquisition conditions. The impact on the resolution as a result of using a coverslip the thickness of which is mismatched with the one that the objective lens is designed for was shown and a novel technique was introduced in order to define the proper value on the correction collar of the lens. The amoimt of spherical aberration with regard to t he numerical aperture of the objective lens was investigated and it was shown that, based on the purpose of our imaging tasks, different numerical apertures must be used. The deformed beam cross section of the single-photon excitation source was corrected and the enhancement of the resolution and image quaUty was shown. Furthermore, the dependency of the scattered light on the excitation wavelength was shown empirically. In the second part, we continued the study of the image enhancement process by deconvolution techniques. Although deconvolution algorithms are used widely to improve the quality of the images, how well a deconvolution algorithm responds highly depends on the point spread function (PSF) of the imaging system applied to the algorithm and the level of its accuracy. We investigated approaches that can be done in order to obtain more precise PSF. Novel methods to improve the pattern of the PSF and reduce the noise are proposed. Furthermore, multiple soiu'ces to extract the PSFs of the imaging system are introduced and the empirical deconvolution results by using each of these PSFs are compared together. The results confirm that a greater improvement attained by applying the in situ PSF during the deconvolution process

Flow patterns in the jugular veins of pulsatile tinnitus patients.

Pulsatile Tinnitus (PT) is a pulse-synchronous sound heard in the absence of an external source. PT is often related to abnormal flow in vascular structures near the cochlea. One vascular territory implicated in PT is the internal jugular vein (IJV). Using computational fluid dynamics (CFD) based on patient-specific Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI), we investigated the flow within the IJV of seven subjects, four symptomatic and three asymptomatic of PT. We found that there were two extreme anatomic types classified by the shape and position of the jugular bulbs: elevated and rounded. PT patients had elevated jugular bulbs that led to a distinctive helical flow pattern within the proximal internal jugular vein. Asymptomatic subjects generally had rounded jugular bulbs that neatly redirected flow from the sigmoid sinus directly into the jugular vein. These two flow patterns were quantified by calculating the length-averaged streamline curvature of the flow within the proximal jugular vein: 130.3±8.1m-1 for geometries with rounded bulbs, 260.7±29.4m-1 for those with elevated bulbs (P<0.005). Our results suggest that variations in the jugular bulb geometry lead to distinct flow patterns that are linked to PT, but further investigation is needed to determine if the vortex pattern is causal to sound generation

In Vitro Shear Stress Measurements Using Particle Image Velocimetry in a Family of Carotid Artery Models: Effect of Stenosis Severity, Plaque Eccentricity, and Ulceration

<div><p>Atherosclerotic disease, and the subsequent complications of thrombosis and plaque rupture, has been associated with local shear stress. In the diseased carotid artery, local variations in shear stress are induced by various geometrical features of the stenotic plaque. Greater stenosis severity, plaque eccentricity (symmetry) and plaque ulceration have been associated with increased risk of cerebrovascular events based on clinical trial studies. Using particle image velocimetry, the levels and patterns of shear stress (derived from both laminar and turbulent phases) were studied for a family of eight matched-geometry models incorporating independently varied plaque features – i.e. stenosis severity up to 70%, one of two forms of plaque eccentricity, and the presence of plaque ulceration). The level of laminar (ensemble-averaged) shear stress increased with increasing stenosis severity resulting in 2–16 Pa for free shear stress (FSS) and approximately double (4–36 Pa) for wall shear stress (WSS). Independent of stenosis severity, marked differences were found in the distribution and extent of shear stress between the concentric and eccentric plaque formations. The maximum WSS, found at the apex of the stenosis, decayed significantly steeper along the outer wall of an eccentric model compared to the concentric counterpart, with a 70% eccentric stenosis having 249% steeper decay coinciding with the large outer-wall recirculation zone. The presence of ulceration (in a 50% eccentric plaque) resulted in both elevated FSS and WSS levels that were sustained longer (∼20 ms) through the systolic phase compared to the non-ulcerated counterpart model, among other notable differences. Reynolds (turbulent) shear stress, elevated around the point of distal jet detachment, became prominent during the systolic deceleration phase and was widely distributed over the large recirculation zone in the eccentric stenoses.</p></div

Color-encoded maps of total shear stress for the time point of maximum TSS in each of the eight carotid models.

<p>For each model, a map demonstrating maximum TSS is shown, where the time point corresponding to the maximum value varied only slightly (20±10 ms beyond peak systole) for the eight models. Note the bottom right color bar (set to the maximum of 150 Pa) represents the seven stenosed models; the time and color bar associated with the normal model are shown in the enclosed box.</p

Spatial and temporal distribution of the maximum free (i.e. non wall) shear stress in the eight models shown for a 180-ms window, incorporating peak systole (PS), as indicated on the reference flow-rate waveform at the bottom right.

<p>For each time point, maximum FSS values were extracted across the entire ICA lumen along 25(0 mm). Note the range-appropriate color bar associated with each row of models and the 1-Pa isocontour increments used for all maps.</p

Volumetric flow-rate waveforms, measured using electromagnetic flow meters, at the inlet of the CCA and outlets of the ICA and ECA.

<p>Volumetric flow-rate waveforms, measured using electromagnetic flow meters, at the inlet of the CCA and outlets of the ICA and ECA.</p

Color maps of the laminar (ensemble-averaged) shear stress shown for peak systole in the eight models.

<p>Three cross-sectional slices are shown alongside the ICA lumen for the locations indicated (as described in <a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0098209#pone-0098209-g003" target="_blank">Fig. 3</a>). Note the bottom right color bar represents the seven stenosed models, and a separate color bar is used for the normal model as indicated in the enclosed box.</p

Histogram of normalized distribution of TSS (≥2 Pa) for the ICA branch (0–35 mm distal to bifurcation apex) and over the systolic phase (same 180 ms window depicted in Fig. 5).

<p>Plots represent the number of voxels accumulated over time and space for each TSS value (1-Pa bins) normalized by the total number of non-zero voxels accumulated for the same time frame in each model. Central plane (left column) includes ∼2000–2500 voxels and volumetric data (right column) includes ∼21000–32000 non-zero voxels, depending on geometry. Note, horizontal axes are presented in log-2 form, all values exceeding 200 Pa fall within the 200-Pa bin, and the normal model uses a different range for the vertical axis.</p

Ensemble-averaged wall shear stress shown for peak systole in the eight carotid models.

<p>For optimal display, the ICA is shown from two different perspectives as indicated by the orientation schematic in the bottom right corner. The color bar represents all the models including the normal geometry. For improved accommodation, the dynamic range of the color bar is reduced to a maximum of 30%-stenosed models.</p